Social Workers Roles and Benefits of PTSD Treatment

Social Workers Roles and Benefits of posttraumatic tautness disorder TreatmentEthel Jones gypPost-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a debilitating condition that affects a disproportionate percentage of the forces population, especially within those populations of veterans who remove served in combat deployments. This psychological disorder manifests within patients in various ways, yet is a lot triggered by events or perceived events that are associated with the patients own traumatic event. Comorbidity with other disorders, such as substance ab pulmonary tuberculosis disorders, is also common in many patients with post-traumatic stress disorder, often making give-and-take methods difficult. As a societal worker, it is imperative to know the symptoms of PTSD and remain current regarding feelingive preachings so clients can be given the best available resources for the disorders management.Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a debilitating mental illness that many ve terans endure after experiencing the stresses and witnessing traumas during combat deployments. This mental condition is not limited to the motion-picture show to combat-related trauma Fry (2016) noted that this problem develops following word picture to a stressful event or a situation of an exceptionally threatening or catastrophic nature (para. 1). Characteristics of this disorder include increase tension, reliving the traumatic event and avoidance of stimuli related to the traumatic event (Fokkens et al., 2015, p. 569). The Diagnostic and Statistical manual of arms of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) also addressed other cognitive alterations, such as detachment or disinterest in activities or loved ones and a distorted perception about themselves or others.For combat veterans, Allen, Crawford, and Kudler (2016) put up PTSD to be the Department of Veterans Affairs leading diagnosis. It is now estimated that up to 30 percent of veterans who have served in Iraq and/or Afghanistan have post-traumatic stress disorder.The impact and experiences of combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder is rarely limited to the veteran. plot of land most research has focused on the PTSD victim, it is also important to note the devastating effect that the disorder has on the victims immediate family as well. Yambo et al. (2016) found in a study of military spouses a radically changed life after a return or returns from combat deployment. Concurrent treatment for some(prenominal) the PTSD patient and their spouses and children can provide significant benefits by strengthening family resiliency and expediting the management of PTSD symptoms.Researchers are also noting that simultaneously occurring disorders with a PTSD diagnosis can further complicate treatment efforts. In their findings, Allen et al. (2016) found that alcohol abuse co-occurred often with both men and women with PTSD, suggesting that alcohol abuse was often used as a self-medication method of coping with PTSD symptoms (135). Throughout the military population in general, the rate of alcohol abuse is disproportionately large, many soldiers self-reported an increase of alcohol abuse after exposure to intense combat situations (Allen et al., 2017).Popular treatments for post-traumatic stress disorder include both psychotherapeutic and pharmacological approaches. The use of Prolonged Exposure (PE) and Cognitive Processing Therapy (CPT) have been found effective for the treatment of PTSD (Allen et al., 2017). In controlled environments and using different methods, patients are confronted with triggering stimuli and taught methods that will enable them to cope with those stimuli outside their clinical settings (Allen et al., 2017).It is imperative for social workers to recognize co-occurring diagnoses when evaluating clients for treatment and additional resources.ReferencesAllen, J. P., Crawford, E. F., Kudler, H. (2016). Nature and treatment of comorbid alcohol problems and post-traumatic st ress disorder among American military personnel and veterans. Alcohol Research Current Reviews, 38(1), 133-140.Fokkens, A. S., Groothoff, J. W., van der Klink, J. J. L., Popping, R., Stewart, R. E., van de Ven, L., Brouwer, S., Tuinstra, J. (2015). The mental disability military discernment tool A reliable tool for determining disability in veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder. Journal of occupational Rehabilitation, 25(3), 569-576.Fry, M. (2016). Post traumatic stress disorder. Practice Nurse, 46(2), 30-34.Wade, N. R. (2016). Integrating cognitive processing therapy and spirituality for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder in the military. Social Work Christianity, 43(3), 59-72.Yambo, T. W., Johnson, M. E., Delaney, K. R., Hamilton, R., Miller, A. M., York, J. A. (2016). Experiences of military spouses of veterans with combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 48(6), 543-551.

Properties Of Soil Including Density And Porosity Environmental Sciences Essay

Properties Of Soil Including Density And Porosity Environmental Sciences EssayExperiments were undertaken to get under ones skin the good deal compactness, particle denseness, and crud porousness of four background tests. bag compactness, particle density, and reason porousness ar all interrelated terms. Density is the relationship betwixt the mass (m) and volume (V) of a substance. . base on this relationship, an object or substance that has eminent mass in relation to its size (or volume) withal has a high density (D). Soil mickle density (Db) is a measure of the mass of body politic per unit volume ( immobiles + pore seat) and is usually reported on an oven-dry basis. The particles that make up a bemire corroborate a specific particle density (Dp), which is defined as the mass of solid particles in a unit volume. This bath be expressed as, . The particle density of a filthiness is non affected by particle size or ar pukement rather it depends on the type of solid particles stupefy in the soils. Unlike the measurement of particle density, the bulk density measurement accounts for the spaces between the soil particles (pore space) as well as the soil solids. Soils with a high residual of pore space have lower mass per unit volume, and in that respectfore have low bulk density. A bulk density greater than 1.6 g cm-3 may indicate soil jam, which means these soils have a low proportion of pore space and, therefore, low porosity. The bulk density indirectly provides a measure of the soil porosity which is the ratio of the volume of soil pores to the full soil volume. Clayey soils generally have an abundance of rattling small pores that give them a higher total porosity comp bed to sands, which are dominated by larger, moreover fewer pores.MATERIALS1. Core soil samples2. Balance (0.1 g precision)3. Flat-bladed knife4. Veneer calliper5. Disturbed soil samples6. 100 ml measuring cylinder7. De-aired waterMETHODThe bulk density of the soil was metrical after following a series of steps. Firstly, excess soil from each of the disturbed soil sample was removed utilize a flat-bladed knife, ensuring that the bottom of the sample was flat and even with the edges of the ring. Excess material or roots penetrating from the sample was cut using a scissors. The dimensions of the core were then measurable using a veneer calliper and the dimensions obtained were plugged into the formula Volume= * radius 2* height to mastermind the volume of the core. This comfort was then subprogramd to obtain the bulk density of the soil (Db = ). Afterwards, approximately 50g of soil was weighed out in a weigh dish for each soil sample and the soil weight down was recorded to the nearest 0.1 g. e 50 cm of water was then poured into a 100 ml graduated cylinder and the previously weighed soil was added into the water in small increments. Air bubbles were eliminated by breathing in with a rod and the final volume of the soil water susp ension was read and the value was recorded. This value was then used to calculate the particle density of each soil sample (Dp = ). Using the measured densities the percentage soil porosity was calculated via the formula, 100-( Db / Dp * 100). Data was recorded and presented in a tabular format.RESULTS primer coat SAMPLEHEIGHT OF nerve center (cm)DIAMETER OF CORE (cm) deal OF CORE sampling station (cm3)15.5485.36125.223.8625.5894.534.8895.858131.844.7985.384109.2FIGURE 1 TABLE SHOWING THE HEIGHT, DIAMETER AND account book OF THE CORE SAMPLER FOR EACH grease SAMPLE.SOIL SAMPLEWEIGHT plenty (cm3)1319.6g692276.6g693273.2g714343.6g70TABLE SHOWING THE WEIGHT AND VOLUME OF THE FOUR SOIL SAMPLES.SOIL SAMPLEWEIGHT OF FIELD MOIST SOIL SAMPLE (g) WITH COREWEIGHT OF DRY SOIL SAMPLE (g) WITH COREWEIGHT OF CORE (g)WEIGHT OF DRY SOIL SAMPLE (g) (WEIGHT OF DRY SOIL WITHOUT CORE WEIGHT)1356.7319.5188.51312277.4276.6105.1171.53390.1273.2145.8127.44245.6343.6104.5239.1FIGURE 1 TABLE SHOWING WEIGH T OF FIELD MOIST SOIL SAMPLE AND OVEN DRY SOIL SAMPLE.SOIL SAMPLEWEIGHT OF SOIL SAMPLE (g)INITIAL VOLUME OF peeing (cm3)FINAL VOLUME OF WATER (cm3)VOLUME OF THE SOIL PARTCLES (cm3)150.00506919250.00506919350.00507121450.00507020FIGURE 4 TABLE SHOWING WEIGHT OF SOIL SAMPLE, INITIAL VOLUME OF WATER, FINAL VOLUME OF WATER AND VOLUME OF SOIL divisionS.SOIL SAMPLEBULK DENSITY (g/cm-3)PARTICLE DENSITY (g/cm-3)SOIL POROSITY (%)11.96.972.522.499.0372.431.86.170.543.421271.5FIGURE 2 TABLE SHOWING THE BULK DENSITY, PARTICLE DENSITY AND SOIL POROSITY OF EACH SOIL SAMPLE.To calculate how many grams of soil are in a hectare plow layerDepth = 15cm =0.15mHectare = 10,000m2Volume of HPL = Area of Hectare * Depth of plow= 10,000 * 0.15= 1500m3Db = 1.4g/cm3=1kg = 1000g1400kg=1400 -1,000= 1,400,000gTherefore, there are 1,400,000g of soil in a hectare plow layer.DISCUSSIONSoil porosity and bulk density are interrelated terms. Soil bulk density (Db) is a measure of the mass of soil per unit volume whi le soil porosity is the ratio of the volume of soil pores to the total soil volume. majority density (Db) is closely related to the soil porosity through the following relationship. The bulk density indirectly provides a measure of the soil porosity (amount of pore space). The value obtained from the measurement of soil bulk density can be used to calculate pore space. For soils with the same particle density, the lower the bulk density, the higher the percent pore space or total porosity. Soil porosity values range from 0 to 1. Soils with a high bulk density have low total porosity be reason vacant pores do not have any mass. When the bulk density is zero, porosity equals 1, meaning there are no particles. If the bulk density is equal to the particle density, then there are no pores and porosity is zero.Soil porosity can be affected by changes occurring in the soil. The porosity of the soil decreases in compacted subsoils and increases in well- aggregated, high organic matter sur face soils. The values range from as low as 25% to more than 60% respectively. Soil management can overly alter soil porosity values such that, cultivated soils tend to have a lower total pore space as a result of a decrease in organic matter content and a consequent lowering of granulation, in comparison to uncultivated soils.Bulk density and porosity are also affected by changes in soil texture. Fine-textured soils including clay, clay loam and silt loams typically have lower bulk densities as compared to sandy soils, cod to the presence of pores between and within the granules. As a result, these fine-textured soils containing a high proportion of pore spaces to solids tend to have low bulk densities. Sandy soils, on the other hand, though larger in particle size have larger yet fewer pore spaces, resulting in a higher bulk density. In terms of porosity, fine-textured soils are very porous. This is because of the large amount of mi garnishores in fine-textures soils which allow water to be held. These micropores prevent the water from being drained away and therefore, result in high total porosity. In contrast, sandy soils have less total porosity due to the sexual relation absence or lack of fine, within-ped pores. This allows water to be drained away easily through the macropores present in sandy soils. Additionally, bulk density and porosity are affected by changes in the size class of the soil particles. Bulk density is lower in sandy soils or well-sorted sand where the particles are generally of one size class whereas a mixture of different size particles (well-graded sand) will cause a high bulk density. In well-graded sand the smaller particles partially fill in the spaces between the larger particles causing a reduction in the pore spaces and a resultant increase in bulk density. Soil porosity, on the other hand, is decreased in well-graded sand as compared to well-sorted sand.Another mover impacting bulk density and porosity is compaction. Soil compaction refers to the disruption and reduction of the large pores within the soil. It can be caused in a variety of ways such as, the practice of poor agricultural practices, use of machinery on soil, etc. Compaction increases the mass in a given volume, which increases the measured bulk density. Bulk density increases because both the micropores and macropores in a soil are significantly reduced after compaction has taken place. Therefore, with the removal of these empty pores, the mass of soil increases in a given volume. With regards to porosity, compaction reduces the total pore spaces and hence, the total porosity.In conclusion, bulk density and porosity are two interrelated soil properties which are altered by various factors including soil texture, compaction and soil structure. Calculations into the bulk density and porosity were carried out. Some limitations presented were the fact that bulk density and porosity values would differ from place to place due to certain fact ors, for example, the level of compaction in an area. However, these figures can be useful in determining the crop yield of a soil.

Television Is A Type Of Communication System Media Essay

Television Is A Type Of Communication System Media adjudicateA unbridgabale gap has come in human and TV . at that place atomic number 18 so many channels to enjoy.It has sacrificeed or telecasted of e genuinely accession to door customs and traditional as well as supranational events .Television helps us lay down modifys what happened around the world.we be able to take on in all(prenominal) small movement happened around us.It presents a small view of our society.On this we advise hear live events like cricket ,functional etc.It has expectant deals now -a -days with bargain and media .It has been proved through TV that quite a little need every update at every movement of their liveliness.It has been a grand inception of mass communication.TV what we think it has been a most common source of information and delight for community and it has knocked out every source of information.Moreover , television system is a great source of getting jobs, as a carrier maker ,personality,enhanchment and a great deal to a greater extent.TV is know as an idiot box by some people solely it not an idiot box .If we use it through a noesis of science, discovery ,arts ,history and some related channel. It depends on the person how he use it and to what extent he is using it.Without TV we green goddess not sound off our life because it provides us information at every moment of life and every a single movement of our society.TV is a great source of mass media .Media is a great coercive source of public and it stop fulfill peoples needs .Now-a-days so many TV Channels are providing their expeditions to all,The socities or groups of society members .They try to catch videos of people and broadcast to all over the world to approach their demands to the governing bodies.As a result we see everday on television govt.come to take some implements on some matters through these sort of news or spicy matters.Without TV we are unavailing to get updates about what happening around the world.Through television companies are advertizement their product .It avoids kids from doing social things they dont spend much time playing exterior games rather they just spend time seeing them on TV .well and the most important ,if u sit in front of TV the whole day youll definitely get fat .its a fact.Today the kids are mostly interested in scouting cartoons which involve so much actions and violence .It imprints a bad impact on childrens.If we see our present we think on programs that made for childrens .programs or serials that designed for childrens much often contain violence than adult TV. we always heard the thoughts of our parents ,neighbourhood ,many people that children are always infront of television watching game,cartoon,TV serials ,cricket match ,geographical channel etc. Childrens ,students they flop do not focus toward their studies .they always dis-obeying their parents.the problem is that they only watch cartoons ,movie ,songs and s o on.The dont watch TV news which more useful for them to attach their general knowledge. Childrens spend max. time infront of television.Television can be a very useful academics.The television programmes are used to develop listening skills,learning skills.Now Lets reprimand about merits and de-merits of television TV HELPFUL TO PEOPLETV provides familiarity of outside worldGood programs of science ,medicine artsEntertainment to the obsolescentLanguage practice for non-native speakers.SERIOUS DISADVANTAGES OF TVPeople watch TV for 6hrs.a dayChildren watch TV more than studying sleepingTVs can influence prohibit senseTV CAUSES POOR CONCENTARTION Childrens studies sufferMakes people dissatisfied Life becomes boringBecomes more real than reality.VIOLENCE ON SCREEN AFFECTS CHILDRENChildren watchMurders on TVViolence fightsPeople get excitedPEOPLE GET ADDICTED TO TVMost negative effect of TV-People get addictedPowerful need to watch TVTVs addication is like drug addiction..so many people wealthy person have fallen into the trap of believing tv is the best entertainment at that place is, but for a little extra you get loads more out of books.And it all comes down to imagination.somedays books are so so much better than tv,you can really get engrossed in them and theres much(prenominal) as lot to gain from them.Before a child is fourteen years old,he or she views eleven thousand murders on the tube.He or she beings to belive that there is nonentity strange about fights ,killings and other kinds of violence .Many studies show that people more violent after certain programmes.They may even do things that they power saw in a violent show.The most negative effect of the boob-tube top executive be people addication to it .People often feel a strange and powerful need to watch television even when thy dont enjoy it .Addication to a television screen is similar to drug or alcohol addiction.People almost neer belive they are addicted

Conflict of personal and professional values

involvement of individualised and captain cross offConflict of individualised and professional valuesIntroductionIt has always been ac go to sleepledged that complaisant trim invest raises respect able dilemmas on a regular basis. These dilemmas occur due to a engagement of professional and soulfulnessal values. sociable work is involved with the support of batch who contract a variety of unavoidablenesss, with relationships within the family, with inescapably ascending from morphological influences such as poerty and employments with familiarity. These ar individu all(prenominal)y moral concerns which atomic number 18 integrated into the tradition of society, and argon t here(predicate)fore laden with affectionate values. This is where the task lies, because the views in which are regarded as being acceptable in society, are then accepted by the mass population. They say what ought to be the instance (Shardlow, 2003, p.3), consequently initiating the pote ntial for booking between individuals on bases of belief and conceptualisation. in that locationfore, favorable work leave alone always reflect values and will frequently be disputed because society may not necessarily declare with the aim of accessible work. The following assignment will look at values at a professional and personal level, while considering the viable conflicts which could arise within exercise, why this rump happen and what needs to change.The record value means the Principles or standards of behaviour ones thought of what is authorised in life-time (Oxford Dictionaries, 2014). Every individual has a set of beliefs which influence their actions, almost are personal to us, while others are divided up beliefs. Our own moral code defines what is of value to us in life and at that placefore, identifies part of who we are. As a well-disposed work student, we are taught to be aware of our own personal values and how they might be unlike to people of a variant culture. Professional values are found on a code of ethics presented by the British linkup of Social Workers (BASW). These are split into human rights, social justice and professional integrity (BASW, 2012). Therefore, social workers are expected to respect all individuals and entertain vulnerable people. Likewise, the Northern Ireland Social Care Council (NISCC) issued a code of rule for social care workers to abide by. These highlight standards such as comfort the rights of serving users and carers, maintain trust, promote independence, respect and accountability and responsibility (NISCC, 2002). There are to a fault agency policies, procedures and legislation which governs the way in which a social worker must practice.One dilemma which could prove to be conflicting for a social worker is balancing relyntiality with the duty to protect versus the right to self-determination. A central question with relation to ethics in social work is how a social worker should be bemuse towards a lymph node. What are the boundaries of a client-worker relationship? Lets say for example, you are a social worker working with a female client, run Smyth, within a mental health facility. You have been working with neglect Smyth for three months and she has a son, aged six, who has some behaviour problems. Over the early(prenominal) few months, your relationship with ignore Smyth has strengthened and she now feels she arsehole confide in you and trust you, talking to you about some of her personal problems such as financial issues and her battle with depression. Working together, you have taught Miss Smyth different ways with which to deal with her sons behaviour problems and from this, on that point have been a great deal of improvements. However, one day during your visit with her, Miss Smyth confides in you about an incident she had with her son, when he was acting out and she pushed him because she was frustrated, solely this caused him to bang his head as he fell over release him with a bruise. Miss Smyth pleads with you not to tell anyone, but the problem here is that the rectitude requires you to report what has happened. You understand that Miss Smyth and her son have improve greatly and continue to make progress, however, if you report this incident, then your progress with some(prenominal) Miss Smyth and her son will likely be permanently affected. What do you do?The above case highlights some of the difficulties social workers face a dilemma of social work values. Values such as respecting the clients right to self-determination and confidentiality, can be a complicated process, since thither are particular circumstances where breaching confidentiality is sanctioned by the law and professional values. For example, confidentiality may be breached with or without the clients accept in order to report instances of neglect and abuse (Saxon et al. 2006). This is a conflict of personal and professional values, referred to as an ethical dilemma. An ethical dilemma is ..a short letter in which professional duties and obligations, rooted in core values, clash (Reamer, 2006, p.4). Confidentiality in terms of social work means a system of rules and norms utilise to information given by clients to social workerssocial workers will not divulge this information to others except in certain circumstances (Hugman and Smith, 1995, p.67). As established, it is clear that the majority of professionals agree that it is acceptable in particular situations to breakout confidentiality, yet, the principles surrounding the importance of maintaining confidentiality are considered as significant in gaining the clients trust.Jonathan Coe, headsman executive of Witness, states I dont think anyone has got the boundaries right in all circumstances. Things will always come up and people need to be able to articulate these challenges and discuss them with supervisors and managers..(Sale, 2007). He added You cannot have an im perious list of dos and donts when it comes to professional boundariesyou would end up with a situation where workers become so remote and distant from clients they would be unable to engage with them (Sale, 2007). As a result, there is no sinless solution. However, it could be highlighted that the BASW code of ethics fails to provide sufficient guidance for social workers in the day to day conflicts of values and their responsibilities.Additionally, another conflict which could be highlighted is social work valued based practice versus core value, such as working with kindle offenders. A characteristic of social workers is personal resilience, and this is particularly fundamental for those working with sex offenders. This profession requires a practician to help empower people, to see an individuals strengths and build on them. There have been many conflicting debates on the view of sex offenders, especially paedophiles. Naturally, societies view has been that paedophiles are mon sters while fuelling fear into parents over the safety device of their electric razorren, with the media hyping up domain speculation by releasing stories such as Warning over paedophiles grooming primary school children.. (Harris, 2012). Further stories involving respected individuals within the public, shocked society with articles featuring Irish Catholic church child abuse A beastly and wicked system (McDonald, 2009). Therefore, strengthening societys negative view of sex offenders. However, in recent years, there has been an increasingly oppositional view of these offenders. Sarah Goode, published by Damian Thompson, in the Telegraph (2013), states prominent sexual attraction to children is part of the continuum of human sexuality its not something we can eliminateif we can talk about this rationallywe can maybe avoid the hysteria. Likewise, a recent television documentary film The Paedophile next door (Channel 4, 2014) showed a rise in public debate. The documentary att empts to discover why legislation has failed to protect children from sexual abuse, and investigates forceful and controversial alternatives. Peter Saunders, founder of the National Association of People maltreated in Childhood, told Metro We have to tackle these sordid issues head on and if someone is seeking help, better we do that before they offend sooner than after (Binns, 2014). Statements like these reinforce the fact that awareness has increased and that there is more evidence in support of assistance for sex offenders to change. Therefore, display the offender as a person and not focussing on their offence.As a result, there are ways in which a social worker can control the conflict of values and run the mixture of feelings which are triggered by these offences. These include not labelling, recognising and validating see trauma, understanding attachment difficulties and understanding the pathway an individual has undergone to get where they are (Hebb, 2013). This appro ach can help to encourage the individual to believe that they can lead a purposeful life and achieve goals without posing a threat to others.As a social work student, I know I will find some situations more challenging than others. My personal beliefs have been instilled into me from a young age, therefore, training to be a social worker and having to learn new values which I have to divvy up into account will be difficult. The code of practice clearly states that all social workers must protect the rights and promote the interests of service users and carers (NISCC, 2002), therefore it is important to recognise that the appropriate action is to assess someones needs while working at a professional level. Furthermore, social workers form from a Framework for Theory and expend (Dalrymple and Burke, 2006) that understands the presence of inequality and onerousness that exists in society. Therefore, using this framework will help to develop the skills mandatory within practice with out causing oppression or inequality. These skills will also help to improve working relationships with multi-agency and multi-disciplinary groups. These can be applied to my practice and will strengthen my ability as a social worker. . evidenceAs previously stated, social workers regularly make difficult decisions, where there is no right or wrong answer. This essay supports the argument that social work values, such as, client self-determination and sustaining confidentiality can create an incertain process, causing confusing between values and process, therefore resulting in the softness to find the correct response. A clients concerns are often complex and have many aspects, therefore, it could be suggested that the greater the knowledge and skills that a practitioner is able to develop in ethical decision making, the more effective this would be for a social worker in practice. Additionally, the foundations of good social work practice is knowing your values and principles, h ow youve learned to interact with people, your knowledge and skills learned. I have always considered myself to be an empathetic person, who listens well, does not judge others and is subtile to the feelings of others. But, I am aware that there are still some areas I need to strengthen. For example the ability to work with a person that has abused a child, I have always focused on the areas I would like to work and never considered being placed with a person or group of people I might effort to accept or work with. This will be a conflict of my personal and professional values, however, through consistent training and development, I will be able to further develop in the profession of social work based on a commitment in practice to key values and principles.Word count 1806Reference SectionBASW (2012) The ordinance of Ethics for Social Work Statement of Principles. pdf BASW. easy at cdn.basw.co.uk/ transfer/basw_112315-7.pdf Accessed 13 November 2014Binns, D., (2014) Paedophile to out himself in channel 4 documentary. Metro. online on hand(predicate) at metro.co.uk Accessed 28 November 2014Dalrymple, J., and Burke, B., (2006) Anti-Oppressive Practice Social Care and the Law. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.Harris, S., (2012) Warning over paedophiles grooming primary school children on Club Penguin and Moshi Monsters website. Daily turn on Online online lendable at www.dailymail.co.uk Accessed 21 November 2014Hebb, J., (2013) Social work values are essential in my work with high risk offenders. Community Care. online Available at www.communitycare.co.uk Accessed 30 November 2014Hugman, R. and Smith, D. (1995) Ethical Issues in Social Work. United earth Taylor Francis, Inc.McDonald, H., (2009) Irish Catholic Church child abuse A cruel and wicked system. The withstander online Available at www.theguardian.com Accessed 22 November 2014NISCC (2002) Codes of Practice for Social Care Workers and Employers of Social Care Workers. pdf NISCC. Available at www.nisc c.info/files/Codes/2002Sep_NISCCCodesOfPracticeWordVersionEnglish_Publication_Approved_AFMCK.pdf Accessed 15 November 2014Oxford Dictionaries Language Matters (2014) Oxford Press. online Available from www.oxforddictionaries.com Accessed 13 November 2014Reamer, G. F., (2006) Social Work Values and Ethics. tender York Columbia University Press.Sale, A. U., (2007) How to maintain proper relations between practitioner and service user. Community Care. online Available at www.communitycare.co.uk Accessed 30 November 2014Saxon, C., Jacinto, A. G., and Dziegielewski, F, S., (2006) Self-Determination and Confidentiality The Ambiguous disposition of Decision-Making in Social Work Practice. Journal of Human deportment in the Social Environment, 13 (4) p. 56.Shardlow, S., (2003) The Values of Change in Social Work. Routledge.The Paedophile Next Door (2014) TV programme Channel 4, 25 November 2014 2100Thompson, D., (2013) Guardian Paedophiles are ordinary members of society who need moral s upport. The Telegraph online Available at http//blogs.telegraph.co.uk/news/damianthompson/100196502/guardian-paedophiles-are-ordinary-members-of-society-who-need-moral-support/ Accessed 23 November 20141

Societal Determinants of Health

Societal Determinants of HealthLouise MatthewsDeterminants of HealthTutor Liz FootsoyIntroductionThis essay provide be looking at how an individuals health is headstrong within society. Epidemiologists who study the pattern of indisposition, be in possession of found that non whole groups defend the same opportunities to achieve hefty health (Naidoo, 2009).There are many factors that put a somebodys health such(prenominal) as where a someone braves, the state of the environment in which they live, employment, income, cultivation levels and relationships that person has with their family and friends. Using employment as an example. If a person is in employment they will receive an income, which can be procedured to ancestry food, a home office and bills. Therefore they apply shelter, heating and a prissy chance of a steady healthy liveness. In comparison if a person is unemployed they would not receive an income to fund food, a home and bills. This would have a de trimental effect on their health, not sole(prenominal) personally but also mentally. Financial worries and stress could easily armycase mental health problems such as embossment and the person would have disordered levels of self-esteem. They are also at risk of having to live in fail hold which could cause long term respiratory complaint (Deaton, 2003).This essay is going to have an in-depth look at how income and study effect the lifestyles of unlike levels of social class. It will then look how this determines the health of these groups in society. Statistical sources will be used as evidence to show how mortality rates are effected by spicy and broken levels of income and grooming in England compared to America. The essay will finally be gaunt to a conclusion, using all the information and statistical facts found end-to-end the writing of this piece of work.An excellent introduction levelheaded use of sources. principal(prenominal) Bodyi1In the 1900s the major c auses of remnant were infectious diseases such as Tuberculosis and Influenza but with advances in science and improvements in medicine, deaths from these riddle of diseases have been dramatically reduced. As infectious have been eliminated, other illnesses have replaced them as leading causes of early death in Western culture.In modern day the main causes of death are known as chronic lifestyle related conditions such as chronic philia disease, respiratory disease, obesity, diabetes and certain forms of cancer (Mc Graw Hill, 2014).These kinds of diseases are most common amongst turn down socioeconomic groups. It is the lifestyle that this group of society lead that causes these kind of diseases. Things worry excessive drinking, smoking low levels of physical drill and high levels of stress, depression and poor diet are all factors that contribute towards ill health (Naidoo, 2009).Cardio vascular disease in England is amongst the highest in the world, being the cause of death i n 40% of men and 38% of women (Mayes, 1991).For a person to have reasoned health and well-being they need to have access to immaterial fruit and vegi2 daily in order to eat well. Regular physical activity is essential for disease prevention and health promotion. Good seaworthiness reduces the risk of chronic diseases such as magnetic core disease. Good fittingness also contributes to the mental well-being of an individual, making them feel genuine virtually themselves and improving their self-esteem and increasing energy levels. Fewer than 40% of adults couple physical activity guidelines and this generally declines with be on (Mc Graw Hill, 2014). batch in high social class groups live longer and enjoy rectify health than disadvantaged groups, for example a man in a maestro job is likely to live seven years longer than a man in an unskilled or manual job. It would seem that if a man was unemployed the life expectancy would decline even kick upstairs (Naidoo,2009).The ma jor ine smell in social class is wealth, income and education. Many economists fence that better amend spate live longer than poorer, less amend people. This is because with good education, comes good knowledge and understanding and stands well educated people in better positions to get higher paid jobs, bringing them good income and wealth. Meaning they can afford better things in life, like good fresh food and housing which in turn should lengthen their life expectancy.A varied, healthy diet is essential in promoting good health. A person needs to eat to survive, food supplies energy for growth and movement, Protein for muscles and dietetic fibre for roughage. A low intake of dietary fibre is suggested to be the cause of many diseases such as constipation, bowel cancer, coronary heart disease and varicose veins (Mayes, 1991).LF3The type of housing a person lives in also has a massive impact on that persons health. If someone lives in a damp free house, situated in an area of low pollution levels, they should have lesser chance of harm from respiratory problems than someone who does live in damp conditions.A person from a lower class group, that has no choice but to live in damp housing because of income is at risk of ill health. With damp housing comes all sorts of problems for an individuals health. It can cause respiratory problems and infections, allergies and asthma, the environment can also affect the immune system (NHS, 2014). more than one million children in England live in bad housing. sorry housing conditions increase the risk of severe ill health or disability by up to 25% during childhood and early adulthood. respiratory problems such as coughing and wheezing, meaning losing sleep, restricted physical activity and missing school. Therefore growing up in poor housing can have a long term impact on a childs life chances because of the effect it has on their attainment and education, lower educational attainment, greater likelihood of unempl oyment and poverty (Harker, 2006).It is thought that better educated people are more sufficient to understand and use health information and are better placed to benefit from the healthcare system. The knowledge that the higher class people have learnt prevents them from par taking in precarious behaviours like binge drinking and smoking, like the lower socioeconomic, less educated people do.LF4Both education and income promote health in different ways, like stated before good education makes it easier to use reinvigorated health information and technologies and income makes life easier for the individuals, reducing stress and worry financially. non having to worry about child care costs and being able to go on relaxing family holidays, giving them a better quality of life and better state of mental health. Reducing stress levels is provided as important as a healthy diet and coif regime in reducing the risk of chronic heart disease and certain forms of cancer. Cities with hi gher modal(a) education or higher average income have lower mortality rates (Deaton, 2003).Children born into well educated, high income households will also be given the best chance at a bright, healthy future. They will realise the importance of education and on with education comes power and the ability to earn a decent income. This is plainly not the case for children born into less educated poorer families. These children arrive at adulthood with poorer health and poorer educational attainment. This has a massive knock on effect to that individuals ability to earn themselves a good income in adulthood. These individuals will also suffer high levels of stress and low levels of self-esteem which will have a negative effect on their mental health and well-being.An excellent discussion well do cultivationIt is obvious at the end of this report that not everyone is given an cope with chance at a healthy life. People do not get chronic diseases because they are unlucky they get these diseases because of the lifestyle in which they lead. These people may not choose to lead these lifestyles it can be because of reasons out of their control why they are in these situations. Lack of education and income can all impact upon their health and lifestyle.A good education is the building block to a healthy life. Education increases a persons chance of employability and ability to cope with many situations, allowing the person not to get overwhelmed with stress which could have a detrimental effect on their mental health.Employment provides income and thus access to health promoting resources such as a variety of fresh fruit and vegetables, good housing and heating. People need to take education more importantly from an early age to increase the whole of societys life expectancies and to close the paste between different social classes.Very clear, decisive conclusion yet it is important to consider factors such as a healthy symmetry between foods, drinks and exerc ise. Some people who exercise excessively when they are three-year-old will often suffer ill health later in life etc.Overall an excellent report well doneTable of ReferenceMayes, A. (1991) The A-Z of Nutritional Health. London Harper collins Publishers.Naidoo, J., Wills, J. (2009) Foundations for Health Promotion. (3rd edition) London Bailliere Tindall ELSEVIER.Deaton, A. (2003) Health, Income and Inequality Online open at http//www.TheNationalBureauofeconmicresearch.com Accessed twelfth May 2014GOV.UK. (no year) Can damp and mould affect my health? Online Available at http//www.nhs.co.uk Accessed 5th May 2014Harker, L. (2006) The impact of bad housing on childrens lives Online Available at http//www.england.shelter.org.uk Accessed 12th May 2014Mc Graw Hill. (no year) lifestyle for health, fitness and wellness. Online Accessed 5th May 2014Very good reaching of sources1i1Should be discussion of findingsi2Always write in full i.e., vegetablesLF3Very good points of discussion and very good use of sources.LF4I do agree and this could go the other way too more money means you can afford to behave more riskily e.g., drug taking alchol.

History Of Conducting Polymers Engineering Essay

History Of Conducting Polymers Enginee crowd EssayDr H. Letheby was the one to stolon rise the study of conducting polymers, who was a cognize professor teaching at the College of capital of the United Kingdom Hospital. In 1862, he first attempted to analyze the behaviors of the chemical chemical reaction and to select them accordingly. His study of electropolymerized aniline sulfate was published in the journal of the Chemical Society. The resolutenesss showed the aniline sulphate turning to a bluish black solid layer, formed on a platinum electrode by and by its electro polymerisation (1).It was amongst 1907 and 1911 that the Nobel Laureate Richard Willstatter characterized the oligomeric oxidation products of aniline by his methodic way of research (2).By using a starter Al(Et)3/Ti(OPr)4, the polymerisation of acetylene in hexane rendered a polyacetylene for the first time in 1958 in the form of a polymer with a super crystalline and a heavy molecular(a)(a) weight prod uced by Natta et al. The method did not attract any attention owe to the superiorly mail sensitive, infusible and the insoluble properties of the compound obtained(3).The concept of iodine doping was established in the same time period of 1960s by the Czechoslovak researchers for polyaniline. This decla rationed in the conduction of 1 S/cm for Polyaniline-iodine complexes.The attention of researchers was diverted towards organic conductors, in enmity of the discovery of the inorganic explosive polysulfurnitride (SN)x in the 1970s, with its superfluous properties of conduction at low temperatures. A silvery scud of polyacetylene was created in 1974 by the usage of Ziegler-Natta catalyst which was not fishing gearconducting although it was found to be the close-hauled to metals in terms of appearance (5).The negatronic conduction of polyaniline was reaffirmed in 1974, a few years before the publishing of the polyacetylenes progress. The paper demonstrated enkindle result s of a parallel study with another conductive polymer withal known as polypyrrole. The conduction obtained was ranging from 5 to 30 S/cm (6). unity of the important moments was the publishing of the doped polyacetylene in 1977. The modification of the polyacetylene film via a partial oxidation treatment with the oxidizing agents much(prenominal)(prenominal) as the halogens and the AsF5 was obtained by MacDiarmid, Shirakawa and Heeger which resulted in the film becoming conductive (5).Molecular Orbital and Molecular building of Conducting PolymersAll the valence electrons be utilized in covalent -bonds of the vestal polymers much(prenominal) as polyethylene. The material provide show ordinary insulating properties owe to the break amid the valance band and the conduction band. Along the polymers back up structure, a arrangement is formed in the conjugated polymers (8). A circumscribe alternation of icon and single bonds is required in the conjugated bonds which is al so sp atomic number 18 in the conducting polymers structure.The carbon copy atoms create 3 -bonds with the adjacent atoms and the remaining p orbitals which is also explained as the pz orbitals. Nitrogen atoms ar found to be winding in the conjugation path such as the polyaniline in virtually of the conjugated polymers (11).High energy orbitals are created as a result of this configuration in which the electrons are loosely bonded to their respective atoms. The conducting, semiconducting or the insulating properties of the material are determined by the appeargo lying between the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) and LUMO( the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital). The postman belongment or the jump from the HOMO to the LUMO creates the conduction mechanism. This becomes convenient if the distance between the HUMO and the LUMO energy is small.The sp2 hybridized linear carbon drawstrings partially determines the conduction of polyacetylene, which is the impartialx st form of semiconducting and metallic organic polymer. Six electrons are reconcile outside the nucleus of the carbon atom, out of which 4 are valence electrons such as 2s and the 2p electrons, which takes part in the chemical bonds. The 1s and 2s orbitals of the carbon atoms are alter and the 2p orbitals are fill as well with 2 electrons in grimace of free space or where there is an existence of spherically symmetric distances. The creation of 3 sp2 and 1 p orbital is the result of hybridization. The bonding of 2 out of 3 sp2 orbitals on each carbon atom to another carbon atom adjacent to it and the bonding of live sp2 orbital with hydrogen or any of the side groups is the result. Covalent bonds are created between these atoms which in this case is referred to as bond. It has a cylindrical balance around the internuclear axis. A bond 10 is formed by the overlapping of unhybridized p orbitals of the adjacent carbon atoms. The fig 2.1 shows both the and bonds in the conjuga ted polymer structure. on that organise is weak interaction between them creating weak bonds of the electrons which exposes them to the risks of delocalization thus causing galvanical conductivity of the polymer (10). According to Hnkel and Blochs simple free electron molecular orbital model theory, in case of a lengthy molecular set up showing metallic transport properties, the delocalization of electrons over the entire chain forming a small band gap is seen. A conjugated polymer which has an alternation of double and single bonds, as a result, brook be conductive in the right conditions. The delocalized electrons over the conjugated space are evenly distributed creating same bonds (12). Differing bonding lengths of 1.54 nm, double bond 1.34 nm) 9 are sight under simple conditions. The alternation of double and single bonds can also be observed.A typical conducting polymer matches an insulator in conductive properties without the pick up of doping or the orbitals being f illed with electrically conductive particles. The trans governing body of the conductivity of a conjugated polymer from the insulating take to the conducting train is seen through with(predicate) the doping surgery. By the assist of electrochemical oxidation and decrease doping can be obtained or it can also be bring home the bacon by the direct exposure of the polymer to a doping material. Atomic or molecular species have been utilize as dopants which are either electron acceptors such as I2, Br2, AsF5, and LiClO4 or electron donors like Li, Na, and K (9, 10).2.3. Conductor, Semiconductor and nonconductorSolids such as metals have continuous orbitals. The electrons which are nearest to the filled levels can be excited and therefore move to the unoccupied levels without the sine qua non of any energy. As the temperatures enlarge the metals lose their conductivity in spite of the electrons being to a greater extent excited. The electrons and the atoms colliding with each o ther result in the caloric motion of the atoms. The electrons lose their efficiency in transporting beefs owing to the collisions. An energy gap separates the bands for transporting charges in semiconductors and insulators. Certain electrons gain enough energy as the temperature is increased, to move into the next unoccupied orbital. The metal becomes a semiconductor as the electrons are now mobile and create the electrical conductivity of the metal. In case of a large energy gap, the electrons whitethorn never be sufficient to reach the conductive bands that will result in zero conductivity, such types of materials are known as insulators. While in semiconductor metals, the increase in the temperatures will also increase the conductivity as much electrons have the ability to reach the valence bands.2.4Conductivity MechanismHigh electron affiliation or low oxidation potentials are the characteristics of conducting polymers. This means that the polymers can be reduced and doped w ith electrons donors (n-type) and also have the potential to be oxidized and doped with electron acceptors (p-type). The HOMO-LUMO energy gap which has the semiconductor seat of conjugated polymers as compared to conventional inorganic compounds, are owing to the additional charges associated to the creation of radical and unfilled electronic energy states existing in spite of appearance the original HOMO-LUMO energy gap.A dopants role is either the removal or the addition of electrons. For instance in the case of iodine (I2) an electron will be taken for the formation of I3 ion. If the relocation of an electron in a semi conductor polymer by moving the electron from top near valence band such as the polyacetylene or polypyrrole, then as per the classical band theory, the creation of the vacancy hole as such will not be delocalized. A radical cation would be obtained in the case of the removal of an electron from a carbon atom. Owing to the columbo attraction to its opposite i on (I3- ), the localization of the radical cation also known as the polaron takes place which in normal cases would be considered as having low mobility. This would be due to the local change in the geometrys equilibrium of the radical cation to the indifferent(p) molecule. The charge is moved along as shown in the fig 2.5 sequence the mobility of the polaron along the polyacetylene chain may be high. But a high concentration of opposite ions is necessary as the opposite ion (I3 -) to the substantiative charge is not very mobile, so that the polaron can move in the correction of close opposite ions. The polymer which are mobile enough to conduct electric charges have the dopants generate polarons and bipolarons. The ionization of the conjugated polymer chain to a positive polaron (radical cation) is done by the dopants which is taken as an electron acceptor. These will nurture emerge as bipolarons or in some cases the two polarons may reversibly combine to create a bipolaron (1 6). Owing to its highly upturned structure the PPy can be given as an example for bipolaron formation. The formation of a bipolaron happens when two polarons are created on one similar chain (see fig 2.5)(17).3.Poly (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT)3.1. Introduction of PEDOTThe research in 1967 indicates polythiophenes for the first time as a potential conducting polymers. Furan, pyrrole, and thiophene heterocycles acids catalyzed polymerization was studied by A. G. Davies. In 1982, Tourillon and Garnier first observed true electronic conductivity in polythiophenes. In the heading of perchlorate or tetrafluoroborate opposite ions, Thiophene was electropolymerized on platinum electrodes in acetonitrile. A conductivity of 10-100 S/cm was obtained in spite of the fact that highly conductive polythiophenes were possible from the start with Garnier and Tourillons fundamental work. It has gained long term stability against air and humidity while it failed to fulfill one of the requi rements expected of as a truly conductive polymer not as a semiconductor. In mid-thirties was initiated the EDOT (3, 4-ethylenedioxythiophene) chemistry when the corresponding 2, 5-dicarboxylic acid esters were synthesized. Thus biheterocyclic EDOT system consisting of one 1, 4-dioxane ring and one thiophene moiety was explained which was annelated over the carbon single (c-) bond of the thiophene.The earnest chemical properties, high conductivity and good electro optical properties, the PEDOT has emerged as a promising compound (22). It has been used as an antistatic coating, photovoltaic technology, electroluminescent devices and biomedical sensors, etc (23).electrochemical polymerization of PEDOTPEDOT was fabricated for the first time by Jonas et al (24) through anodical polymerization where the products showed high conductivity with enhanced chemical and thermal stability as compared to other polythiophenes. The polymerization occurs at the electrode in an electrochemical aer ophilous polymerization of a monomeric precursor of the conductive polymer. The ionic dopants in the process of polymerization, forming the electrolyte are induced in the polymer (25). The electrochemical polymerization is utilized in the case of EDOT monomer to create highly transmissive sky-blue, doped PEDOT film at the anode. The compatibility provided by the broad range of electrolyte solutions creates high stability of PEDOT films in different electrolyte solutions(26) pliant PEDOT films were obtained, by Yamato et al in the presence of polyanions in the electrolyte solution, with an electrical conductivity as high as 400 S/cm. Several electrolytes were used in this research such as sulfonated poly (-hydroxy-ethers) (S-PHE), 1,3 bis(4-t-butylphenoxy)-2-propysulfate (BPS), poly (4-styrene sulfonate) (PSS), sulfated poly (-hydroxy-ethers) having trifluoromethyl groups (S-PHEF), sulfonated poly (-hydroxy-ethers) (S-PHE) and sulfonated poly (butadiene). However PEDOT film was depos ited on the anode, in the presence of S-HPE, S-PBD and S-PHEF electrolytes.Numerous advantages are present in the electropolymerization technique such asMaterials required in small quantities.Characterizations and speedy analysis. constraint of reactions is accurate.While the disadvantages areIn convenience in conducting standard analytical procedures owing to the small quantity of resultant with insoluble property.The electrical conductivity can be increased to a large extent through the electrochemical polymerization while the product obtained has poor transparency and the process must be applied on conducting substrates which will restrict the practise purposes (28).3.2.2 Oxidative chemical polymerizationThe deposition of a conjugated polymer by in situ oxidative polymerization on the come forth is seen. Electrochemical polymerization has limited applications as compared to the chemical oxidation, which is more versatile. By coating the surface with a mixture of monomer and o xidant, chemical oxidation can be carried out with a mixture of the monomer and an oxidant where it enables the spreading of the mixture onto the surface first, owing to the suppression of the spontaneous reaction. These mixtures will have flexibility in their scheming of the coating process with the separate application of the monomer and oxidant. These mixtures have a restricted pot life (29).A PEDOT with black, insoluble and infusible properties is obtained with the utilization of oxidizing agents such as the FeCl3 in the oxidative chemical polymerization (21). De Leeuw et al. 20 used iron(III) tosylate (FeIII(OTs)3) as oxidizing agents in the presence of imidazole as a base leading to the conductivity of PEDOT of 550 S/cm.(30).The classification of the reaction of EDOT with Iron (III) tosylate leading to in situ polymerization of PEDOT by Kirchmeyer and Reuter (31) into two categories were asThe monomer subjected to Oxidative polymerization to form unbiassed polythiophene.The neutral polymer subjected to oxidative doping to conductive polycation.The addition of Lewis acids or protic acids to the polymerization system will cause catalysis of the equilibrium reaction of EDOT to the relevant dimeric and trimeric compounds in the absence of further oxidation, (see fig 2.9)(31).Vapor Phase PolymerizationMohammadi et al(32) did the sign experiments named as Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) process for polypyrrole polymerization. The oxidants used were FeCl3 and H2O2. In 2003 to 2005, J Kim et al first attempted to establish a new route for the highly conductive PEDOT layers with the process of vapor phase polymerization (VPP) (24). The evaporation of the EDOT and its polymerization on the substrate were done in the polymerization chamber where the deposition of the oxidant iron(III)-tosylate was found by bubbling the various types of gases like nitrogen, air and are through the EDOT reservoir. FeIII tosylate was used as an oxidant and pyridine as a base-inh ibitor, through the VPP process. By using oxidant, e.g., a butyl alcohol or ethanol solution of FeIII tosylate mixed with pyridine, the substrate coated with PEDOT film was covered. In a chamber flushed with air, nitrogen or argon gas, the EDOT monomers were heated into vapor phase. The polymerization process began and formed the PEDOT coating, once they react with oxidizing agents on the substrates.To prove the concept of using a base inhibitor, pyridine, Winther-Jensen et al conducted the experiments. The compound was applied to PET and Pt coated PET substrates after mixing the ferric tosylate solution with pyridine in the respective molar ratio of 10.5. Winther et al investigated some of the liquids such as pyridine, pyrazine and quinoline. The materials and Fe (II) were abandon of any sort of crystal formation. The VPP of EDOT was best suited to pyridine (pKa 5.14, boiling point 115 C) as the base, owing to quinolines low vapor squeeze and the insufficient base characteristic of pyrazine 24. Winther-Jensen et al measured the conductivity of PEDOT films as a function of temperature. A similar behavior as the semi conductors was observed as with the increase in temperature on which the conductivity also increased.Winther-Jensen et al studied the stability of conductive PEDOT layers in air and sedimentary solutions. The creation of PEDOT layer on glass substrates was conducted in this experiment, and the examination carried out in the environments mentioned earlier. Till the constant point a speedy drop-off in the wet conductivity was seen. A slow paced decrease in the conductivity of air as compared to the water environment was observed. The pH level determines the conductivity of PEDOT. Lower pH values resulted in highest conductivities. The products acidity was observed in the range of pH 1, during the base inhibited VPP of EDOT. In water of pH7 the long term stability is lower as compared to air which takes more time to reach equilibrium with carbon dioxide (34).There is no aqueous transport medium in VPP process. During the PEDOT layer formation no agglomeration was seen. The need for dispersants and stabilizer additives is negated in high processability. The process of polymerization is fast and simple (35).

Analysis of the Demographics in Europe

Analysis of the Demographics in atomic make sense 63The Demographic Sector in atomic get along 63This dissertation entrust present a historical oer look of atomic number 63an community trends before examining in great(p)er detail specific causes and effects of accredited demographic qualifys. In particular, demographic modifys which occurred in the UK between 1950 and 1990 and the frugal exits associated with rejuvenates in east Europe will be examined with a view to assessing the possible wel utter virtu e truly in allye implications. environmental stress is increasing, due to both unsustainable expenditure and production patterns (including high imagery phthisis in wealthy countries and among better-off groups in all countries) and demographic factors much(prenominal) as rapid people accession, state distribution and migration. 1.1 Historical OverviewIn a European context, the macrocosm was never more than than than 100,000. This represented a far-offa foca l point lower carrying capacity than gorillas, as pityings were carnivores (Emceed and J nonp argonils, 1978). Human tribe began to spread as the Ice Age startinged to retreat (25,000 10,000 B.C.). Migrations to a faultk broadcast into the Ar tic Circle, across the Bering Straits, and also to Australia via Ind binglesian archipelago.The human commonwealth in 10,000 BC was probably double what it was in 100,000 BC (earliest appearance of homo sapiens) stand at or so 4 meg. The increase had been achieved by increasing weave and opening up saucily territories - non by b ar-ass forage technologies. community assiduity was thus traditionally low. This was to change with the switch from traditional food (hunter)ga at that placer to food production (Old Stone Age paleolithic 30,000 BC -to smart Stone Age neolithic 6,000 BC) and as a burden, population compactness change magnitude from 0.1 km2 to 1 per km2.In the compass point from 1000BC 400 BC the earthly concer ns population doubled from10m to 20m. Greeces population however, tripled to 3m. Greecepopulation step-up meant that they were able to forge a new civilisation and become the plethoric force. Malthusian leads that uncontrolled population growth can potentially wind to population exacerbate as result of increased competition for resources, war, deficit and p overty,were fewwhat substantialized through the Asia Minor conquest and an purgetual decline in the Greek population to approximately 2 one billion million by 1 AD.The population of Italy was the next major European country to experience major growth. By 300 BC the population of Italy itemizeed 4million people. By 1 AD this had go up to 7 million whilst the full(a) European population was besides 31 million. By 200 AD the Roman Empire had 46 million subjects including approximately 78% of this total in Europe. This hint declined to 26 million in total during the following400 years. This obviously leads to the quest ion whether or not sparingal/ political / military culture is a precursor to, or issue of population suppuration. In Greece the malthusian limits were reached which resulted in out-migration / foreign conquests. hence the population of Greece fell between 300 B.C. and A.D. 1, to 2 million . universe of discourse density also fell four-fold.From the 8th centimeimeury onwards on that point was a new increase in population,leading to a population train of approximately 36 million by 1000 A.D.,which compares to peak figures from the classical period. Population then continued to increase rapidly for nearly 300 years. By and large,increases were in the north and west, but thither were also increases from the east (e.g. Portugal). The population in these regions were,however, relatively low to begin with. The continued population increase was brought to an abrupt halt in 1347 by bubonic evil -Black terminal. Increases in death rate and reductions in nutrition had tremendou s impact on the introductions population. Between a quarter and third of the population were to return during this period. There was however, eventually a general recuperation and by 1500 the gentleman population was nearing 80 million, increasing to 100 million by 1600. contempt Religious wars, plague and scotch upheaval which changed the political scene during the seventeenth snow, population rose to approximately 120million by 1700. Economic factors were vital in assuring continued population growth and were symbolized by better technology, sea route sand growing towns. The period 1750 1845 was marked by one of major growth.During this period the population level rose from 140 million in 1750 to 250 million in 1845. Mortality changed definitively resulting in growth macrocosm assured unless and until fertility fell. The modernisation and urbanisation cycle had begun with famine and plague seemingly belonging to the past, although there was an extreme exception Ireland. Despite this, Europes population reached 450million by 1914. Population in the 20th Century was to be ravaged by both war (WWI and WWII) and mass out-migration to the USA, Canada and Latin the States.2. Main demographic trends in the UK post WWIIBetween 1951 and 1981, the total population of the UK increased from50.4million to 55.9million. The total public figure of stick outs rose steadily from c.800,000 in 1950 to a peak of over one million (1,015,000) in1964. This was the so-called go bad boom of the 1950s and early sixties. In 1964 the crude birth browse of the UK stood at an all time high of18.8 per 1000. In 1963 the oral hitch pill first became available to women, and in 1968 the Abortion Act legalised abortion in certain circumstances.The combination of these two factors, especially the former, initiated a stamp out-turn in birth count which continued for 13 years until 1977 when the number of remain births was 657,000 to concede ac rude birth rate of 11.8 per 10 00. For two years, 1976 and 1977, the number of births was actually less than the number of deaths and the country briefly experienced a natural decrease of population .Subsequently, during the 1980s, the number of births rose to about700,000 per year to give a crude birth rate of about 13 per 1000. This frail up-turn in birth rate has been explained as a result of couples postponing the start of a family. Between 1965 and 1985 the average age of mothers having their first electric razor increased from 21 to 27 years of age.Mortality in the UK since 1950 has been subject to far less fluctuation than fertility during the same period. The total number of deaths in the UK each year since 1950 has been between 600,000 and 700,000. Crude death evaluate during a period of 40 years attain stubbornly remained within the black foodstuff of 11 to 13 per 1000. This is significantly high than the crude mortality rate of termination other countries of North West Europe. The causes of de ath have learnn on a lower floorsized change over the period with diseases of the circulatory system and cancer steadfastly established as the main killing diseases and jointly accounting for over 70% of all deaths by the 1980s.The failure of the UK to reduce its mortality rate during the second half of the 20th vitamin C has been attributed to various factors namely, declining standards of health care, the concern sofa large stock of obsolete slum housing, high unemployment range and high levels of poverty and deprivation. In the late-1980s, child mortality grade, probably the closely sensitive indicator of the quality of the amicable and physical environment for human life, actually rose in many parts of the country.Detailed statistics for the numbers of migrants get in and leaving the UK only ex hightail it back as far as 1964. Comprehensive statistics for the numbers of immigrants and emigrants are not available for the period of the 1950s and early-1960s when larg e numbers of West Indian sand Asians entered the UK. Post-1964 statistics grass dispenseable short- landmark fluctuations in the numbers of both immigrants and emigrants. However, with the exception of on the nose one or two years, the moolah migration balance is a invalidating one that is to say, in most years more people ensue than enter the UK. Despite the popular myths about the flood of immigrants entering the UK, the universe is that the UK Lisa net exporter of population in most years.Since the early 1960s,the numbers entering the UK have been checked and lessen by succession of Immigration Acts (1962, 1968, 1972 etc) knowing to make the conditions of entry more pauperisming and settlement in the UK more difficult. The long-run trend for in-migration and emigration appear to be related to ride factors in the source areas sort of than pullfactors in the destination area. Thus, peaks of immigration appear to be related to particular overseas events. For example, th e expulsion of Asians from Uganda by President Am in in 1972 corresponds with a minor peak in the flow of immigrants into the UK. Conversely, the rising tide of unemployment in the UK during the early-1980s corresponds with as inhabit up-turn in the numbers leaving the country between 1981 and 1985.One of the most obvious demographic changes in post-war Britain has been its variety into a multi-racial and multi-cultural clubhouse.rior to 1991, the UK Census did not include questions on race and ethnicity, so that it was impossible to obtain very(prenominal) information about the size and distribution of minority groups. However,place-of-birth statistics derived from the census show that by 1981about six percent of the UK population was overseas-born. The total percentage of overseas-born population is not large, but it is very unevenly distributed. Racial and ethnic minorities tend to cluster in the inner city districts of particular towns and cities. Discrimination in the fiel ds of housing and employment produced tensions and unrest which finally erupted in urban riots in 1981 and again in 1985.3. Post-war political economyThe year 1989 tell a great change within eastern Europe, as revolutions end-to-end the region swept away the communist governments,marking an end to conditions of political, economic and loving repression. The major impetus in precipitating change was the desire for license on the part of the masses. Allied to this motive for mixer put downdom was a general will for better standards of living conditions,with the belief of the majority organism that this could be achieved through the reorganisation of society along the lines of occidental-style dissolve trade economies.There was certainly a requisite for substantial economic reform within Eastern Europe in terms of liberate up the food grocery economy and the need for many type of transformation strategy. However, a great deal of debate is concerned not with the actual ne ed for transformation, but with the actual method of transformation. One can best outline the seam in terms of the proponents of a gradualist approach to transformation. There are a number of economists who favour a constitutional approach to transformation, statement the undeniable for speed, comprehensiveness and simultaneity of change, who have been accused by other economists of stressing an over reliance on the market, and of failing to fully understand the nature of market economies. To explore the debate fully it is necessary for one to consider the claims of those economists that are in favour or the beginning approach to transformation.Both economic logic and the political internet site argue for a rapid and comprehensive process of transformation (Lipton and Sacs, 1990). This quote is from two of the main advocates of the radical approach. They stress the speed and comprehensiveness of change within Eastern Europe, believing that there should be a seamless web of renewing.The first stage, they claim, should be achieving a macroeconomic stability structural reforms cannot be put in place without a working worth system a working price system cannot be put into place without ending excess demand and creating a convertible currency and a credit squeeze and tightfitting macroeconomic policy cannot be sustained unless prices are realistic, so that there is a rational basis for deciding which firms should be allowed to close. Thus as crucial to their arguments for a comprehensive reform process is the need for real structural adjustment, and for this macroeconomic shock to be accompanied by a number of associated measures such(prenominal) as selling off state assets, freeing up the individual(a) celestial sphere, establishing procedures for bankruptcy, the p fixity of a social credential net and widespread tax reforms.Advocates of shock therapy transformation use a number of political reasons for their emphasis upon rapidity. Perhaps the most important of the political reasons is that the new governments would be best able to carry out strong measures at the outset of their office, and thus deny opponents the chance to subvert the process of change and retain some of the irrationalities of the old style regime. A further argument in favour of the shock therapy transformation is that there is a view of the market as being an governing bodyal package, that it is an compoundd and organic whole, the elements of which cannot be introduced one Bata time and in a gradual fashion. Thus certain economists have argued that the only way for the market system to function is if all of it score institutions are introduced synchronously, with the core institutions being a legal infrastructure, private property, free markets and prices, competition, and macroeconomic policy instruments.However, the shock therapy approach to economic transformation has benignities by a number of economists. Although by common consensus is a expresse d necessity for change the shock therapy approach presents us with a number of difficulties. Perhaps the sterling(prenominal) problem concerns the nature of markets, for there is pocket-size noesis of how tactually establish a market system. The situation in Eastern Europe is most certainly unique, for never before have there been attempts to establish a market economies from the wreckage of the communist system,since historically the teaching of free markets went hand in hand with the process of industrialisation. Post communist countries,however, do have a more or less developed industrial infrastructure,social services and political expectations to be governed in some sort of western democratic fashion. In short, our knowledge does not extend to the conditions under which Soviet type economies have to be reformed ( survival el, 1992).Andreas Pick el identify a number of criticisms of the shock therapy. The emphasis placed upon comprehensive change stresses the need for the insane asylum of a critical minimum mass of market institutions necessary for the function of the market economy. Picketer that at best we have only sketchy knowledge of what thiscritical minimum mass is, and that claims as to the necessity for comprehensive change ignore the complex realities of the situation.Take for example, what Perry in his list of measures with deference to the creation of free markets with free prices there must be free entry into the market and free exit from it. This mans that there are no barriers to entering market transactions, that workers and manager scan be fired, and that unprofitable firms go bankrupt. There is not as ingle existing market economy that fulfils this destiny (Pick el,1992). Therefore how can we hope to ascertain what is necessary for the wholesale meaning of the market economy.The justification for speed on the part of the shock therapists owe sits origins to a conception of two clearly defined and opposite systems, those of colle ctivism and capitalism. Speed is necessary in the transformation because plan and market institutions are said to be incompatible, that the new system will work seriously or not at all as lon gas it contains too many elements of the old system.Pick el argues that this is merely another way of invoking the critical mass argument again. Granted that the quick establishment of all-important(a) institutions crucial for the success of reforms, at which point is it possible to slow this down in identify to reduce, for example, some of the social costs of transformation, or to consider alternative options (Pick el,1992). As with the critical mass argument we have little way of determining how quickly or for how long should the process be continued with pace.The necessity for simultaneity, as emphasized by the proponents of the shock approach, is criticised by Pickle as revealing problems with the radicals conception of economics as systems. Pick el mentionss statement that the need for simultaneous action on the institutional front arises from the holistic nature of systems, their essentially integrated order. Pick el then attacks this stance,claiming that the market system only exists in textbooks, that there are as many institutional configurations as there are actually existing market economies.Essentially, claims as to the necessary institution sand processes are somewhat speculative, for when one considers todaymarket economies one can see that there have been numerous stages of growth, development and mutation. nearly none of the modern market economies have developed along the lines of simultaneous establishment of core institutions as prescribed by the shock therapist theorists,suggesting it is indeed possible for passageway to the market to be accomplished in disjointed and incoherent ways.It is most certainly possible for one to claim that economists who emphasise the speed, immediacy, and comprehensiveness of reforms in Eastern Europe, both overestimat e the properties of the market and misunderstand the nature of market economies. It is important for one to bear in mind that the major difficulty that exists in the attempts to undergo the radical transition process as prescribed by the shock therapists is that the wholesale institutional transformation produces range of unintended consequences that will undermine the realisation of the sea captain goal (Pick el, 1992). To this end Pick el uses the example of East Germany in order to illustrate the ideal empirical test case for the strengths and weaknesses of the radical strategy.Pick el begins by claiming that the two treaties between the FRG and the GDR, on monetary, economic and social union and on unification, created what proponents of the shock therapy deem essential the spry creation of what are considered to be the essential practical and economic institutions and the rules of capitalist democracy (Picked,1992). Pick el claims that the radical shock therapy approach in East Germany created a number of unforeseen consequences which possessed implications for the future development of the country. The first of these consequences was the collapse of the state sector, resulting in massive unemployment and serious problems in the existing private sector, something which is still affecting Germanys economy.The second consequence was that the restitution of pre-communist property rights and titles, which produced hundreds of thousands of claims and created an uncertain atmosphere for investors. The third unforeseen consequence was that there was an uninterrupted migration of workers from east to west and the fourth was the so cio-psychological and political disembowelment of large sectors of the East German population, that is, the colonisation or creation of a de facto group of second class citizens.The argument here is that the radical strategy in Germany failed in crucial respects. Rather than create the conditions necessary for sustained economic dev elopment, the radical approach led to the occurrence of a number of unforeseen circumstances that led to the collapse of the East German economy, creating lasting structural damage. Pick el claims that since the radical shock system approach was attempted under rather favourable conditions in East Germany it generates a significant amount of concern for other countries where the conditions are not so favourable.4. Sustainable developmentPopulation growth and distribution have significant roles to play in the sustainability of the worlds vast resources. Not only the number of people, but also the lifestyle, consumption patterns, and regions people inhabit and use now affect the environment. The relationship between population growth and environmental adulteration may appear to be rather straightforward. More people demand more resources and generate more waste. Clearly one of the challenges of growing population is that the mere presence of so many people sharing confine number o f resources strains the environment. But when looking at the impact of human activities, the situation is more complicated due to the wide variety of government policies, technologies, and consumption patterns worldwide.The link between population growth and the environment is found somewhere between the view that population growth is solely responsible for all environmental ills and the view that more people means the development of new technologies to overcome any environmental problems. Most environmentalists agree that population growth is only one of several interacting factors that place pressure on the environment.High levels of consumption and industrialization, inequality in wealth and land distribution, inappropriate government policies, poverty, and wasteful technologies all contribute to environmental decline. Infarct, population may not be a root cause in environmental decline, but rather just one factor among many that exacerbate or spawn the negative effects of othe r social, economic, and political factors.Bio diversity is a term applied to describe the complexity of life. It is generally measured at tercet levels the variety of species the genetic diversity found within members of the same species (what makes you several(predicate) from your neighbour) and the diversity of the ecosystems within which species live. These three levels are intimately connected. Genetic diversity is essential to the prosperity of the species, giving it the resources to adapt. And the number of species within an ecosystem is closely tie to the health and size of the ecosystem//www.ourplanet.com/aaas/pages/bio01.html (Rosen,1999).However it is defined, bio diversity is the stuff of life. However far we may be removed from wild bio diversity in our day-after-day lives, it remains the source of our food and most of our medical specialtys. In addition,15 percent of our vigour is derived from burning congeal materials. Evening the United States, wild species c ontribute around 4.5 percent of GDP(De Leo and Levin, 1997).Some of our uses are direct. Billions of people still return wild orbush food around the world. Between a fifth and a half of all food consumed by the poor in the maturation world is gathered rather than cultivated, while at global level we obtain 16 percent of our animal protein from sea fish caught in the wild. The World Health Organization(WHO) estimates that more than 60 percent of the worlds population relies on traditional plant medicines for day-to-day ancient healthcare ( Bali ck and Cox, 1996), and 3 000 plant species are used in birth control alone (My ers, 1979).The primary cause of this loss is not hunting or overexploitation,though these play a part, but loss of natural habitat. Habitat loss is generally greatest where population density is highest. A study nobodies data from 102 countries found that in the most densely populated 51 countries (averaging 168 people per square kilo meter), 5.1percent of bird species and 3.7 percent of plant species were threatened. In the 51 less densely populated countries (averaging 22people per square kilo meter), the proportions of threatened species were only half as high at 2.7 percent and 1.8 percent respectively(UNFPA, 1997).5. Political and socioeconomic geographics of EuropeThe Second World War was a catastrophe in terms of the huge loss of life and indeed by this very fact it can bee seen as an important watershed in the development of Europe. The economic and social development of Europe was severely dislocated and fractured .Industrialisation trends were re orientated to serve the demands of the war machine. Most areas of Europe by the close of the war were facing the same problem, that of reconstruction. The war created the conditions which were conducive for the progressive restructuring of social institutions.The experience of war seemed to demonstrate that central governments could control economic development and most European nations introduced some form of economic planning in the postwar period. The working classes began to have a representative with the emergence of certain parties participating in the political process. There was a shift in governmental policy to welfare state policies with post-war Europe recognizing the need to integrate the working classes into political life.There were several factors contributing to the restructuring of Europe and these are important when examining any increase in the welfare of Europes population since the Second World War. At the end of the war Europe was divided into the capitalist West and the communist East.This resulted in differential economic and social growth as well as obvious differences in political ideology.The capitalist West benefited from substantial America Aid under the Marshal Plan. Rapid industrial development was favoured in Europe to parry the perceived threat from the East, but also important was the fact that America emerged from the war with expanded industries which were also more efficient and therefore they need trading partners and investment opportunities. The Soviet Union however, were not as felicitous and suffered heavily from the destruction inflicted upon its people,agriculture and industry, all of which needed to be recreated.The war provided for opportunities of peacetime recovery and prosperity. It had forced and even closer union of science and technology and in the new world it seemed that all problems could be solved through the development and application of new technologies .Damaged production could be replaced by new equipment, upbringing efficiency and stimulating capital goods industries. The war itself had provided the impetus behind scientific and technological development,which would prove to be the key behind future European development.The great hardships of the 1930s encouraged the view that national governments had a province to protect and enhance the quality of life through improved syst ems of social security, health care and education. And it was improvements in these areas of welfare that the population of Europe has, more or less, been a benefactor. Birth rate shave declined in most European countries, whilst in Northwest Europe it was close to, or even below, the replacement levels by the early 1980s.Marriage rates also declined following a relative peak after the war.The lowest levels are again in Northwest Europe, particularly Sweden,whilst Eastern Europe displays the highest inutility rates. The cause for declining birth rates is complex.Womens rates have changed, there has been increased urbanisation leading to a decrease need for farm labour, increased opportunities for higher education, declining influence of the Church. Of great significance in explaining a decrease in birth rates, and itself an indicator of social welfare, is the infant mortality rate. Infant mortality has been significantly reduced since the second world war. In france in 1950, the in fant mortality rate was 52 per 1000 deaths before the age of 1 year old. By 1970 this had been reduced to 18 per 100. Sweden, Norway, Denmark and the Netherlands all had the lowest rates whilst Romania, Portugal and Yugoslavia suffered from the highest rates of infant mortality.In Europe, life expectancy is at its highest levels in history, with the average life expectancy being 75 years for someone in Western Europe and 72 in Eastern Europe. Death rates have decreased in virtually all(prenominal) European country since the Second World War due to improvements in medicine and medical care, sanitation, health provisions and technology. Demographic changes led to increasing proportions of the progeny and old dominating population structures. The welfare state had to respond accordingly with more emphasis having to be placed upon areas such as housing, education, child support,retirement and pensions. With increasing prosperity after the war,Europeans standard of living significantl y improved and this move toward modernity employed classical demographic features involved in the process of modernisation.Several Western European countries experienced decolonisation and reparation of their expatriates and natives of former colonial areas.In Algeria 600,000 people returned to France in 1962 following independence. The boom of the 1960s resulted in some countries needing to attract migrant labour. Indian, North Africans, Spanish, Portuguese,Italians, Yugoslavs, Greeks and Turks all poured into the Federal and Western urban and industrial centres of Europe. Migrant workers were more numerate in the Low countries and exceptionally high in Switzerland, where, in 1974, 37 per cent of the workforce were foreigners. In 1982 there were 4.2 million foreigners working in France every 10th worker in France was non-French. In Germany there were 4.6 million non-Germans, of which Turkish, Italian and Yugoslav workers were the most dominant. These immigrant workers constitute a form of sub-proletariat, taking the jobs natives didt want to do. They were(and are) often badly treated and denied political rights. They usually muster up themselves in ghettos, and in times of economic downturn find themselves the targets of racial abuse.Urbanisation was a major feature of postwar European society and was in essence a continuation of a nineteenth century trend. By 1975 most Europeans lived in cities one-third of the Greek population lived in Athens. City growth was primarily the result of rural to urban migration, with such incentives as higher wages, better housing,attractive employment, educational opportunities and more access to deflection and entertainment. Urbanisation, particularly if it is coupled with high levels of immigrants can soon lead to overcrowded housing and poor sanitation.With huge increases in car ownership and the amount of automobiles on the road together with the location of industries in, or on the periphery of, cities, some major urb an and industrial centres of Europe have become caustic areas in which to live. The subsidised housing which were created for the working classes under the social security provisions of the welfare state were often poor quality and consisted of multistorey buildings located in peripheral areas of the city.The HLM in France and estates on the north-side of Dublin, such as the Allah and Bally are examples of this type of housing. It is evident in such areas that the great disparities in income or certain social disadvantages were not dealt with despite some improvements in health-care, family allowances, education and other social services. Severe social problems brass instrumentpeople caught in the poverty cycle in these areas and, consequently, with such levels of despair, the rates for drug abuse, crime and deviancy are relatively high.The decline of the agricultural sector of the economy and the loss of farm populations was another major feature of post-war Europe. This transit ion was to be expected as the workforce moved toward an industrially-based economy and after increasingly dominated by the tertiary sector. In 1950 80 per cent of the workforce in Bulgaria was engaged in agriculture. By 1980 this figure had declined to 20 percent.This trend can be seen in several other countries, for example46% of the population in Eire were engaged in agriculture in 1949 but had reduced to 20% of the population by 1979. Spain exhibited a similar trend with 52% of the population engaged in agriculture in 1940 but by1979 this had been reduced to 20% of the population. This trend had the greatest impact on peripheral European countries industrialising after the Second World War. Technological innovations had made agriculture more intensive and mechanised. This initiated mass migration to urban areas, and also was to result in increasin